To further the education of Revinh and battlefront23 here is an essay that I wrote about selfishness in human nature. It's to do with evolution but I'm not interested in starting an evolution vs creation thread so just read it in light of my claim that human behaviour is selfish.
"A common argument leveled against evolutionary theories of human nature is that natural selection demands nothing less than absolute selfishness from each individual, but we live in a world with many observable acts of altruism. The controversy and confusion over this criticism lies within the contrasting meanings of the words selfishness and altruism. A convincing argument can be made for the hypothesis that an individual with selfish genes will inevitably be a selfish person. However its truth is entirely dependant on what way you define a selfish person, in terms of his genes, or himself. Similarly a convincing argument can be constructed which shows that the evolutionary theory of group selection proves that human beings are predominantly unselfish. Yet once again it reaches a contrasting conclusion when the meaning of altruism is looked upon at a different angle.
Richard Dawkins noted very early on, in his book The Selfish Gene, that "Universal love and the welfare of the species as a whole are concepts which simply do not make evolutionary sense"[1]. This is because natural selection demands that only the fittest individuals will survive in an environment with finite resources. It follows by reason that altruism, an act which "increases the fitness of others and decreases the fitness of the actor"[2], will not survive in a world governed by evolution by natural selection. However its opposite, selfishness, will .This leads to the hypothesis that selfish genes produce selfish people.
The argument for the hypothesis that selfish genes produce selfish people is straightforward. It entails that an individual who displays selfish characteristics is more likely to be successful at producing fit offspring. Therefore if a persons genes are selfish so too is their behaviour. Dawkins evidently came to the same conclusion as he says "gene selfishness will usually give rise to selfishness in individual behaviour"[3]. However if we are to follow this reasoning we must consider if the selfish individual lives more successfully than the unselfish individual. This was first discussed in Plato's Republic when Thrasymachus argued to Socrates that "a just man always comes off worse than an unjust"[4]. We can not use Socrates' refutation of Thrasymachus' claim to draw a conclusion to our argument because it predates the discovery of evolution. However it does highlight the discrepancy in the meanings of the word selfish held between people like Dawkins and people like Plato.
Although Dawkins' "selfishness" and Plato's "injustice" seem to be referring to the same concept, they mean completely different things. Specifically they refer to selfish genes and selfish people. A person who has selfish genes is a person who acts in a way which preserves those genes. But a selfish person is one who prescribes to hedonism and preserves his individual self. For example a person who bears children and ensures that they are fit and able to produce grandchildren is behaving genetically selfish, while a person who diverts all his resources to himself and ensures only his own preservation and comfort is behaving personally selfish. The differences in these meanings of selfishness are significant because they provide contrasting answers to the original hypothesis that selfish genes produce selfish people.
When we examine our original hypothesis in light of the two meanings of selfishness, we find that there are two contrasting answers. An individual who behaves according to their selfish genes would produce many viable children and would thus, by our standard, be more successful than a person who does not. Using this definition of a selfish person as Dawkins did would lead us to believe that our original hypothesis is correct. However an individual who behaves according to their own selfish whims (like the "unjust" men in Plato's Republic) would produce comparatively less viable children and would be less successful. This leads us to the conclusion that our original hypothesis was wrong. Clearly our hypothesis is a subjective matter but it is complicated even further by the question originally posed by Socrates; does the selfish individual live more successfully than the unselfish individual?
While Socrates answered this question in terms of virtue and the soul I will answer it in terms of altruism and evolutionary theory. Specifically I will look at the theory of group selection. Socrates says of injustice (which we shall use interchangeably with selfishness) that, "it makes that which possesses it, firstly incapable of united action; secondly, the enemy of itself, of everything that opposes it and the just"[5]. In short, he realized that cooperative altruistic behaviour was greater than selfish individual behaviour. This is the basis that Darwin's theory of group selection uses for its argument[6]. This sort of relationship between altruists and selfish individuals can be expressed mathematically, where we find out that in a stable population, where the overall fitness is equal between the two groups, there is a majority of altruists (approximately 60%)[7]. We can conclude from this argument that group selection produces a group of predominately altruistic individuals.
This evidence appears to refute our original hypothesis but in fact when we look at it more broadly we realize that it supports it. The confusion, this time, lies in the meaning of altruism. By our earlier definition of altruism, it seems that the individuals in our equation are genuinely unselfish. This may be true on a psychological level but ultimately because their behaviour has indirectly prevented them from being selected against, we must conclude that they are acting selfishly, in the interests of their genes. Therefore we can finally agree with Dawkins' assertion that "gene selfishness will usually give rise to selfishness in individual behaviour" when we regard altruism in evolutionary terms. Furthermore we can also agree with Socrates' claim that the just man (altruist) is more successful than the unjust (selfish individual), when we regard altruism in personal and psychological terms.
When we return to the original criticism that evolutionary theories are inconsistent with actual human behaviour we can conclude that the true inconsistency lies between the individual and his genes. The genes are enslaved to the laws of evolution by natural selection and the individual to his mind, morals and culture. Hence the two must be separated before we can decide just how selfish people are.
Bibliography
Lindsay, A.D, Plato's Republic, (Everyman's library, 1976)
Richards, J.R, Human Nature After Darwin, (Routledge, 2000)
Sober, E & Wilson, D, Unto Others The Evolution And Psychology of Unselfish Behavior (Harvard University Press, 1998)
[1] Richard, Dawkins The Selfish Gene (1989), pg-2-3 quoted from J.R, Richards, Human Nature After Darwin (2000), p-161
[2] Elliot, Sober, Unto Others The Evolution And Psychology of Unselfish Behavior (1998), p-17
[3] Dawkins, pg-2-3 quoted from Richards, p-161
[4] A.D, Lindsay, Plato's Republic, (1976), p-19
[5] Lindsay,pg-29
[6] Charles, Darwin, The Descent of Man, (1871),pg166 quoted in Sober,pg-4
[7] Formula from Sober,pg20,25 population size=100, baseline fitness=10, cost to altruist=-1, benefit to recipient=5, percentage of altruists in population=60% percentage of selfish individuals in population=40% so: altruist 10-1+5(59)/99=11.9797
: selfish individual 10+5(39)/99=12.0202"
The point of all that crap is that even if we don't believe in the afterlife we still have motivation to be an altruist, yet in doing so we are acting selfishly. Thus battlefront's concern that athiests ought to not have reason to be nice is unfounded.
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